The city of Tangier was subject to an international regime from 1912 to 1956, formalized by a charter in 1923. This status placed the city under the collective rule of the major powers, but in practice it was bypassed by France, which manipulated the sovereignty of the Sultan of Morocco. The economic consequences for the city were disastrous: the misused status fueled competition between France and Spain to the detriment of the development of the port or the railroad. The status was seen as a sign of stagnation and burdened a population that was becoming increasingly hostile, until the Sultan and the national movement used France’s own strategy against it. This article explores the history of Tangier from the perspective of its international status, drawing on Arab, French and Spanish sources to reveal the economic impact of France and Spain’s shared colonialism on the city and to challenge the idealized view of Tangier as a cosmopolitan place.
Tangier, Morocco, Protectorate, International zone, Sovereignty.